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We have been raised with the idea that it is necessary to burn a fuel to produce power which we can use. We are sold coal, coke, timber, paraffin/kerosene, petrol/gasoline, diesel, propane, etc. for us to burn in order to “get” energy. While it is perfectly true that burning these things will indeed result in energy in a form which we find convenient to use in heating, cooling, powering engines, etc. what is carefully avoided is the fact that it is not at all necessary to burn a fuel in order to power the things which we want to power. This ‘inconvenient’ fact has been concealed and denied for more than fifty years now (very surprisingly, by the people who want to sell us these fuels to burn – do you perhaps think that they may have some motive for this, other than our best interests which they no doubt are very concerned about?).
This chapter is about ‘self-powered’ motors. Strictly speaking, they are not ‘self-powered’ but as they don’t burn a fuel of any kind, in everyday language they can be described as ‘self-powered’. In the same way that a solar panel in sunlight uses no fuel and yet puts out electrical power, these motors draw energy from the environment and provide us with mechanical power. In actual fact, power is never “used up” but just converted from one form into another. In the case of our trusty solar panel, some 17% of the radiation from the sun (mainly ultraviolet) is converted into electrical power and 83% goes in heating and other losses, but as we don’t have to supply the sunlight, and the solar panel pours out the electricity which we want without us having to do anything to make it happen, we really don’t care very much about its extremely low efficiency. As far as we are concerned, the electricity flowing from the panel is “free-energy”. It is really amazing that we have been persuaded that we must burn a fuel in order to get power. Take the case of a heavy-displacement sailing yacht. The skipper can voyage using his inboard diesel engine:  This matches perfectly with the thinking that you need to burn a fuel in order to get power as the yacht is moving along, pushed by the engine which is powered by burning diesel fuel. But, what if the skipper decides to switch the engine off and set the sails?:  Now, the same boat, weighing exactly the same with the same crew, is now continuing the voyage at the same speed, but no fuel is being burnt. The really interesting thing is that while we know this perfectly well, and we are aware that people have sailed right around the world in boats which do not have engines, it does not seem to occur to us that this shows conclusively that it is not necessary to burn a fuel to power some item of equipment or form of transport. In the case of our yacht, the energy comes from the sun which heats the atmosphere unevenly, causing winds to blow and the yachtsman uses the sails to make those winds power his boat through the water. So, a sailing boat is actually powered by the sun although we don’t usually think about it that way. There are many hydro-electric “power stations” where electricity is ‘generated’ by machines driven by water pressure. In actual fact, no power is ‘generated’ at all, but instead, the potential energy of the body of water is converted into electricity by having the water fall and spin the shaft of a machine. So, how did the water get up there in the first place? Well, it came from rain. And how did the rain get up there? It rose up there due to evaporation caused by the heat of the sun. So, the bottom line again is that hydro-electric ‘power’ stations are powered by the sun. Windmills are also powered by the sun. But, and here is the really interesting thing, if I state that it is perfectly possible for a compressed-air engine to produce mechanical power with burning any fuel, then there is an immediate and strong reaction where people will say “Impossible – that is perpetual motion !!” They imply that perpetual motion is impossible but never supply any rational evidence to support that implication. The Earth has been spinning on its axis for millions of years, so when exactly do they expect it to stop? All the planets in the Solar System have been orbiting for millions of years, how long do they have to orbit before they can be considered to be in perpetual motion? Why then are people so opposed to the idea of perpetual motion? Presumably, because perpetual motion shows clearly that a fuel does not have to be burned to ‘produce’ power and that would not be good for people who sell fuels, and so, we are all told from an early age that perpetual motion is “impossible”. Well, that does not matter here as we are going to look at compressed-air engines which run off the heat of the sun. That is, they are heat-pumps which are a well accepted engineering fact and they work on wholly accepted standard scientific principles. An ordinary refrigerator outputs three or four times as much heat power as the electrical power driving it, and it could be twice that efficient if it were used properly. This is a Coefficient Of Performance (COP) of 3 or 4, which is supposed to be “impossible” but unfortunately, all refrigerators work like this and you can’t exactly say that refrigerators don’t exist, just because their performance does not appear to fit in with some theories. Actually, there is no magic involved here as the extra energy is being drawn from the heat content of the air in the immediate locality. The refrigerator is not operating in isolation and there is a heat exchange with the air surrounding it. This outside energy causes the COP>1 performance. In passing, all COP>1 devices operate by drawing energy in from an external source (usually the zero-point energy field) and none of them actually break the ‘rules’ of science. But, enough of that. The people who don’t want self-powered engines used in the world today, pin their hopes on a continued ignorance of Engineering facts relating to heat pumps. A self-sustaining compressed-air engine is actually running off power from the sun just as sailboats, windmills and hydro-electric power stations do. Sorry folks, no magic here, just bog-standard Engineering. Admittedly, very few people know or realise the implications of this standard Engineering:
Let’s check this out by taking a look at some of the engines which use these principle to provide fuel-less operation, starting with the design of Bob Neal specified in his (slightly re-worded) patent: US Patent 2,030,759 11th Feb. 1936 Inventor: Bob Neal COMPRESSOR UNIT This invention relates to the construction of a compressor, and more particularly to a combined fluid-operated engine and compressor. The primary object of the invention, is the provision of a compressor of this character, wherein there is arranged an automatically counterbalanced crankshaft and fluid equalisers within a storage tank, which makes it possible for the engine to operate on constant reserve tank pressure, so as to actuate additional equipment, the pistons for the engine also being automatically balanced and suspended when the engine is operating. Another object of the invention is the provision of an engine which is operated by air under pressure, the air being supplied by compressors which are in a bank with the engine construction. A further object of this invention is the provision of an engine of this type of novel construction as the engine and the compressors are operated from the same crankshaft, which is of the automatically balanced type, so that high efficiency is attained. A still further object of the invention is the provision of an engine of this character which is comparatively simple in construction, thoroughly reliable and efficient in its operation, strong, durable, and inexpensive to manufacture. With these and other objects in view, the invention consists in the features of construction, combination and arrangement of parts as will be described more fully here, illustrated in the accompanying drawings which disclose the preferred embodiment of the invention, and pointed out in the appended Claim.  In the drawings, Fig.1 is a perspective view of the engine constructed in accordance with the invention.  Fig.2 is a vertical transverse cross-section view through the compressor part of the engine.  Fig.3 is a vertical cross-sectional view through the power part of the engine.  Fig.4 is a detail elevation of the crankshaft of the engine.  Fig.5 is an enlarged cross-sectional view through one of the electric heaters for the engine.  Fig.6 is a vertical, longitudinal, cross-sectional view through the air storage tank, including the equaliser. The same reference numbers are used for each individual part in every view in every drawing. Referring to the drawings in detail, the engine in its entirety, composes a cylinder block 10 having inside it, the series of compressor cylinders 11 and the power cylinders 12. The block 10 is of the V-type and the upper ends of the cylinders are closed off by the removable heads 13 and 14 which are held in place by conventional head bolts 15. Beneath block 10 is the crank case 16, which has detachable plates 17 at opposite sides, held in place by fasteners 18, and seated so as to be leak proof. The block 10 is chambered to provide a water jacket 19 surrounding the cylinders, while at the forward end of the block are water pumps 20, circulating water through the inlet pipe 21 which leads into the jacket and the water exits from the jacket through the outlet pipe 22. Beside the pumps 20, is a fan 23 which is operated from the same belt 24 which drives the pumps. Working inside the cylinders 11,are the reciprocating pistons 25, their rods 26 sliding through packing glands 27 and fixed to crossheads 28 which slide on their mounting guides 29 which are secured to the walls of the crank case 16. These crossheads 28 are fitted with wrist pins 30, forming a pivoting connection with the connecting rods 31, which are connected to their cranks 33 by their bearings 32. The cranks 33 form part of a counter balanced crankshaft 34, which is mounted in supports 35 attached to the crank case 16, the shaft being provided with the required bearings 36. The inner ends of the cylinders 11 are fitted with inner end heads 37, which are provided with air intake ports 38 fitted with spring ball inlet checks 39, the air entering through passages 40 which open outside the block 10. Glands 27 are mounted in the heads 37. The heads 13 and 37 are provided with the compressed air outlets 41 and 42, which are fitted with spring ball checks 43. The heads 13 are also provided with the central air inlets 44, which are fitted with spring checks 45. Couplings 46 attach the air outlets 41 and 42 to their outlet feed pipes 47 and 48. These pipes lead to a main conduit 49 which is located in the centre channel 50 of the block 10. At the rear end of the block 10, mounted on shaft 36, there is a conventional flywheel 51. Working inside the cylinders 12 are the pistons 52, with their piston rods 53 sliding through packing glands 54 and fixed in crossheads 55 which slide along their mounting guides 56, mounted on the inner walls of the crank case 16. The crossheads 55 have wrist pins 57 which provide a pivoting joint for the connecting rods 58 which are connected by their bearings 59 to their cranks 60 of the crank shaft 34, the inner ends of the cylinders 12 being closed by the inner heads 61 and their associated glands 54. On the cylinders 12 are slide valve chests 62 in which are the slide valves 63, these being operated by throw rods 64 actuated by cams 65 and the valves controlling the admission and exhaust of air into and out of the cylinders 12, through the ports 66 and 67, and these valves 63 are provided with ports 68 for the delivery of air under pressure from the inlet passages 69 common to a pipe 70 coming from a compressed air storage tank 71. The bottom of the crank case 16 is fitted with a removable plate 72 which is secured in place by fasteners 73, and when this plate is removed, it provides access to the crank shaft 34 and the bearings for the engine, as well as other parts inside the crank case.  Leading into the cylinders 11 are the passages 74 of a lubricating system (not shown). The compressed air storage tank 71 has inside it a double-check discharge nozzle 75, supported by member 76. Leading to this equaliser is an air inlet pipe 77 which connects through its valved section 78 to the compressed air reservoir 79. In the equaliser 75, are the spaced spring ball checks 80 and 81, one being for the inlet side and the other for the outlet side of the equaliser. This pipe 77 is connected with the main conduit 49, while a pipe 82 connects to pipe 70. The tank is also fitted with an automatic relief valve 83 and this valve can be of any approved type. Placed around the pipes 70 which connect to the air passages 69 (Fig.3) are electric heating units 84 to heat the pressurised air to above freezing temperature when delivered from tank 71 to the cylinders 12. Supported on the block 10 is an electric generator 85 which is driven from the shaft 34 (Fig.2) through a belt 24 (Fig.1) and this generator is included in an electric circuit which also has the heaters 84 so that these will operate from current supplied by the generator. The compressed air storage tank 71 with the equaliser is constructed so that it is possible to pump air into it while it contains an air pressure of 200 pounds per square inch while the compressors are only pumping against 15 pounds per square inch of (atmospheric) pressure. An outside air pressure source can be coupled with the tank to augment that pressure derived from the cylinders 11 of the engine. CLAIMS What is claimed is: In a structure of the kind described, a V-shaped cylinder block provided with upwardly divergent cylinders, end heads fitted to said cylinders at opposite ends thereof, each head having valved inlets and outlets, a main outlet lead between the cylinders of the block for a storage tank and having lateral branches to the outlets at the inner sides of said heads, one inlet being located at the centre of each head at the outer ends of said cylinders while the remaining inlets are at the outer sides of the heads at the inner ends of said cylinders, a substantially V-shaped crank case fitted to the block beneath the cylinders, a counterbalanced crank shaft journaled in the crank case, pistons operating in the cylinders and having rods extended into the crank case, crosshead guides fitted to the interior sides of said case, crossheads connecting the rods with the guides and sliding on them and connecting rods operated by the crank shaft and pivoted at the crossheads in order to allow reciprocation of the pistons. You will notice that Bob has avoided any direct mention of the fact that his engine design is fuel-less. That sort of statement is not popular with Patent Examiners even if it is perfectly true. This system could do with some further explanation, so here is an idea from Scott Robertson's web site, for a possible working compressor system using a leaf-blower:  While this looks rather complicated, in reality it really isn’t. Let’s take the different sections in order:  First, you have an ordinary air engine, supplied with compressed air from a pressure tank. This engine exhausts its (cold, expanded) air to the atmosphere. The engine powers two compressors which between them keep the tank full of compressed air.  The first compressor is a simple ‘leaf-blower’ type which produces a large volume of low-pressure air. The big question is “how do you get this large volume of low-pressure air into a tank which has high-pressure compressed air inside it?”. Well this seemingly impossible task is performed by the second compressor aided by a cunning, ultra-simple design:  Here, low-pressure air is fed into the low-pressure area marked in pink. Separating it from the high-pressure area is a metal plug marked in green. Set into this plug is a ring of five one-way air valves marked in red. These one-way valves let the low-pressure air into the high-pressure area because of a high-speed jet of air produced by the ‘jet-drive compressor’. At first glance, this seems impossible, but it is actually just an application of a standard Engineering technique. The high-speed air jet is directed through a specially shaped nozzle, creating a local low-pressure zone around the jet:  The low-pressure air at point “A” flows through the ring of five one-way valves into the disc-shaped low pressure area “B” and is blasted into the high-pressure area “C” by the high-power air jet ripping through the doughnut-shaped ring marked in yellow. The high-speed air jet causes the low pressure ring “B” by its rapid movement which creates a vortex due to the shape and positioning of the doughnut-shaped ring marked in yellow. This clever arrangement allows large volumes of low-pressure air to be drawn into a tank which contains high-pressure air. You will also note that the two-stage compressor which generates this high-speed jet of air, has its working area actually inside the tank. This means that the heat of compression is used to heat the air inside the tank and raise its pressure, enhancing the operation further. It should be borne in mind that the new air entering the system has been heated by the sun and contains the energy which powers the system. The Leroy Rogers Engine. This engine is driven by compressed air. This principle is very easily understood and is not a long way from the operation of steam-powered railway engines of years gone by. What is not generally realised is that more energy is available from compressed air than the energy required to compress the air in the first place. Another detail not generally realised is that simple heat energy can be drawn from the local environment and used to help power the air compressor in a design of this type. The Rogers motor shown here makes no claims to spectacular operation, but in spite of that, Leroy did admit in an interview that this motor does indeed have a greater output than the applied input, provided that the motor is not left just ticking over. This motor is like the US patent 3,744,252 “Closed Motive Power System Utilising Compressed Fluids” by Eber Van Valkinburg shown below. However, the Rogers patent shown here has the distinct advantage that it uses off-the-shelf motors and readily available hardware and there is nothing really exotic or difficult about the Rogers engine that a person couldn’t get from a valve supplier or get a metal fabrication company to construct. Present day vehicle engines are under-geared and run at fairly low revs. These same engines operate much more efficiently at higher revs, if they are given different gearing. With the Rogers motor, the air contained in the high-pressure tank is sufficient to drive the pistons up and down. The exhaust air can be captured in a buffer tank and pumped back into the high-pressure tank by a compressor with much higher gearing and much lower capacity per piston stroke. The expanded air exiting from the engine is at much lower temperature than the surrounding air. This gives it higher density and so the re-compression efficiency is raised and in addition, once back in the storage tank it’s temperature rises again which boosts the pressure in the storage tank, courtesy of the heat from the local environment. Here is a slightly re-worded copy of the Lee Rogers patent: Patent US 4,292,804 6th October 1980 Inventor: Leroy K. Rogers METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR OPERATING AN ENGINE ON COMPRESSED GAS ABSTRACT The present invention relates to a method and apparatus for operating an engine having a cylinder containing a reciprocating piston driven by a compressed gas. The apparatus comprises a source of compressed gas connected to a distributor which conveys the compressed gas to the cylinder. A valve is provided to admit compressed gas to the cylinder when the piston is in an approximately Top Dead Centre position. In one embodiment of the present invention, the timing of the opening of the valve is advanced so that the compressed gas is admitted to the cylinder progressively further before the Top Dead Centre position of the piston as the speed of the engine increases. In a further embodiment of the present invention, a valve actuator is provided which increases the length of time over which the valve remains open to admit compressed gas to the cylinder as the speed of the engine increases. A still further embodiment of the present invention relates to an apparatus for adapting a conventional internal combustion engine for operation on compressed gas. US Patent References: 3,881,399 May., 1975 Sagi et al. 91/187. 3,885,387 May., 1975 Simington 60/407. 4,018,050 Apr., 1977 Murphy 60/412. DESCRIPTION BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION The present invention is a method and apparatus for operating an engine using a compressed gas as the motive fluid. More particularly, the present invention relates to a apparatus for adapting a pre-existing internal combustion engine for operation on a compressed gas. Air pollution is one of the most serious problems facing the world today. One of the major contributors to air pollution is the ordinary internal combustion engine which is used in most motor vehicles today. Various devices, including many items required by legislation, have been proposed in an attempt to limit the pollutants which an internal combustion engine exhausts to the air. However, most of these devices have met with limited success and are often both prohibitively expensive and complex. A clean alternative to the internal combustion engine is needed to power vehicles and other machinery. A compressed gas, preferably air, would provide an ideal motive fluid for an engine, since it would eliminate the usual pollutants exhausted from an internal combustion engine. An apparatus for converting an internal combustion engine for operation on compressed air is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,885,387 issued May 27, 1975 to Simington. The Simington patent discloses an apparatus including a source of compressed air and a rotating valve actuator which opens and closes a plurality of mechanical poppet valves. The valves deliver compressed air in timed sequence to the cylinders of an engine through adapters located in the spark plug holes. However, the output speed of an engine of this type is limited by the speed of the mechanical valves and the fact that the length of time over which each of the valves remains open cannot be varied as the speed of the engine increases. Another apparatus for converting an internal combustion engine for operation on steam or compressed air is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,102,130 issued July 25, 1978 to Stricklin. The Stricklin patent discloses a device which changes the valve timing of a conventional four stroke engine such that the intake and exhaust valves open once for every revolution of the engine instead of once every other revolution of the engine. A reversing valve is provided which delivers live steam or compressed air to the intake valves and is subsequently reversed to allow the exhaust valves to deliver the expanded steam or air to the atmosphere. A reversing valve of this type however does not provide a reliable apparatus for varying the amount of motive fluid injected into the cylinders when it is desired to increase the speed of the engine. Further, a device of the type disclosed in the Stricklin patent requires the use of multiple reversing valves if the cylinders in a multi-cylinder engine were to be fired sequentially. Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to provide a reliable method and apparatus for operating an engine or converting an engine for operation with a compressed gas. A further object of the present invention is to provide a method and apparatus which is effective to deliver a constantly increasing amount of compressed gas to an engine as the speed of the engine increases. A still further object of the present invention is to provide a method and apparatus which will operate an engine using compressed gas at a speed sufficient to drive a conventional automobile at highway speeds. It is still a further object of the present invention to provide a method and apparatus which is readily adaptable to a standard internal combustion engine, to convert the internal combustion engine for operation with a compressed gas. Another object of the invention is to provide a method and apparatus which utilises cool expanded gas, exhausted from a compressed gas engine, to operate an air-conditioning unit and/or an oil-cooler. These and other objects are realised by the method and apparatus of the present invention for operating an engine having at least one cylinder containing a reciprocating piston and using compressed gas as the motive fluid. The apparatus includes a source of compressed gas, a distributor connected it for conveying the compressed gas to the cylinder or cylinders. A valve is provided for admitting the compressed gas to the cylinder when the piston is in an approximately Top Dead Centre position within the cylinder. An exhaust is provided for exhausting the expanded gas from the cylinder as the piston returns to approximately the Top Dead Centre position. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a device is provided for varying the duration of each engine cycle over which the valve remains open to admit compressed gas to the cylinder, dependent upon the speed of the engine. In a further preferred embodiment of the present invention, an apparatus for advancing the timing of the opening of the valve is arranged to admit the compressed gas to the cylinder progressively further and further before the Top Dead Centre position of the piston, as the speed of the engine increases. Further features of the present invention include a valve for controlling the amount of compressed gas admitted to the distributor. Also, a portion of the gas which has been expanded in the cylinder and exhausted through the exhaust valve, is delivered to a compressor to be compressed again and returned to the source of compressed gas. A gear train can be engaged to drive the compressor selectively at different operating speeds, depending upon the pressure maintained at the source of compressed air and/or the speed of the engine. Still further, a second portion of the exhaust gas is used to cool a lubricating fluid for the engine or to operate an air-conditioning unit. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the valve for admitting compressed gas to the cylinder is operated electrically. The device for varying the duration of each engine cycle, over which the intake valve remains open, as the speed of the engine increases, comprises a rotating element whose effective length increases as the speed of the engine increases, causing a first contact on the rotating element to be electrically connected to a second contact on the rotating element, for a longer period of each engine cycle. The second contact operates the valve causing it to remain in an open position for a longer period of each engine cycle, as the speed of the engine increases. Still further features of the present invention include an adaptor plate for supporting the distributor above the intake manifold of a conventional internal combustion engine after a carburettor has been removed to allow air to enter the cylinders of the engine through the intake manifold and conventional intake valves. Another adaptor plate is arranged over an exhaust passageway of the internal combustion engine to reduce the cross-sectional area of the exhaust passageway. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Preferred embodiments of a method and apparatus for operating an engine according to the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings in which components have the same reference numbers in each drawing. Fig.1 is a schematic representation of an apparatus according to the present invention arranged on an engine:  Fig.2 is a side view of one embodiment of a valve actuator according to the present invention.  Fig.3 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 3--3 in Fig.2.  Fig.4 is a cross-sectional view of a second embodiment of a valve actuator according to the present invention.  Fig.5 is a view taken along the line 5--5 in Fig.4.  Fig.6 is a cross-sectional view of a third embodiment of a valve actuator according to the present invention;  Fig.7 is a view taken along the line 7--7 in Fig.6.  Fig.8 is a cross-sectional view of a gearing unit to drive a compressor according to the present invention.  DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS With reference to Fig.1, an engine block 21 (shown in phantom) having two banks of cylinders with each bank including cylinders 20 having pistons 22 which reciprocate in them in a conventional manner (only one of which is shown in phantom). While the illustrated engine is a V-8 engine, it will be apparent that the present invention is applicable to an engine having any number of pistons and cylinders with the V-8 engine being utilised for illustration purposes only. A compressed gas tank 23 is provided to store a compressed gas at high pressure. It may also be desirable to include a small electric or gas compressor to provide compressed gas to supplement the compressed gas held in the tank 23. In a preferred embodiment, the compressed gas is air which can be obtained from any suitable source.  A line 25 transports the gas withdrawn from the tank 23 when a conventional shut-off valve 27 is open. In addition, a solenoid valve 29 preferably operated by a suitable key-operated engine switch (not shown) is also placed in the line 25. In normal operation, the valve 27 is maintained open at all times with the solenoid valve 29 operating as a selective shut off valve to start and stop the engine 21. A suitable regulating valve 31 is arranged downstream of the solenoid valve 29 and is connected by a linkage 33 to a throttle linkage 35 which is operator-actuated by any suitable apparatus such as a foot pedal (not shown). The line 25 enters an end of a distributor 33 and is connected to an end of a pipe 35 which is closed at the other end. A plurality of holes, which are equal to the number of cylinders in the engine 21, are provided on either side of the pipe 35 along the length of the pipe 35. When the present invention is used to adapt a conventional internal combustion engine for operation on compressed gas, an adaptor plate 36 is provided to support the distributor 33 in spaced relation from the usual intake opening in the intake manifold of the engine after a conventional carburettor has been removed. In this way, air is permitted to enter the internal combustion engine through the usual passageways and to be admitted to the cylinders through suitable intake valves (not shown). The adaptor plate 36 is attached to the engine block 21 and the distributor 33 by any suitable apparatus, e.g., bolts. Each of the holes in the pipe 35 is connected in fluid-tight manner to a single line 37. Each line 37 carries the compressed gas to a single cylinder 20. In a preferred embodiment, each of the lines 37 is 1/2 inch high pressure plastic tubing attached through suitable connectors to the distributor 33 and the pipe 35. Each of the lines 37 is connected to a valve 39 which is secured in an opening provided near the top of each of the cylinders 20. In the case of a conversion of a standard internal combustion engine, the valves 39 can be conveniently screwed into a tapped hole in the cylinder 20 typically provided for a spark plug of the internal combustion engine. In a preferred embodiment, the valves 39 are solenoid actuated valves in order to provide a fast and reliable opening and closing of the valves 39. Each of the valves 39 is energised by a valve actuator 41 through one of a plurality of wires 43. The valve actuator 41 is driven by a shaft of the engine similar to the drive for a conventional distributor of an internal combustion engine. That is, a shaft 55 of the valve actuator 41 is driven in synchronism with the engine 21 at one half the speed of the engine 21. A first embodiment of the valve actuator 41 (Fig.2 and Fig.3), receives electrical power through a wire 45 which is energised in a suitable manner by a battery, and a coil if necessary (not shown) as is conventional in an internal combustion engine. The wire 45 is attached to a central post 47 by a nut 49. The post 47 is connected to a conducting plate 51 arranged in a housing 53 for the valve actuator 41. Within the housing 53, the shaft 55 has an insulating element 57 secured to an end of the shaft 55 and rotates with it when the shaft 55 is driven by the engine 21. A first end of a flexible contact 59 is continuously biased against the conducting plate 51 to receive electricity from the battery or other suitable source. The other end of the contact 59 is connected to a conducting sleeve 60 which is in constant contact with a spring biased contact 61 which is arranged within the sleeve 60. The contact 61 is pressed by a spring 63 which pushes contact 61 towards a side wall of the housing 53. With reference to Fig.3, a plurality of contacts 65 are spaced from one another and are arranged around the periphery of the housing 53 at the same level as the spring biased contact 61. Each contact 65 is electrically connected to a post 67 which extends outside of the housing 53. The number of contacts 65 is equal to the number of cylinders in the engine 21. One of the wires 43, which actuate the valves 39, is secured to each of the posts 67. In operation, as the shaft 55 rotates in synchronism with the engine 21, the insulating element 57 rotates and electricity is ultimately delivered to successive pairs of the contacts 65 and wires 43 through the spring loaded contact 61 and the flexible contact 59. In this way, each of the electrical valves 39 is activated and opened in the proper timed sequence to admit compressed gas to each of the cylinders 20 to drive the pistons 22 on a downward stroke. The embodiment illustrated in Fig.2 and Fig.3 is effective in causing each of the valves 39 to remain open for a long enough period of time to admit sufficient compressed gas to each of the cylinders 20 of the engine 21 to drive the engine 21. The length of each of the contacts 65 around the periphery of the housing 53 is sufficient to permit the speed of the engine to be increased when desired by the operator by moving the throttle linkage 35 which actuates the linkage 33 to further open the regulating valve 31 to admit more compressed gas from the tank 23 to the distributor 33. However, it has been found that the amount of air admitted by the valves 39 when using the first embodiment of the valve actuator 41 (Fig.2 and Fig.3) is substantially more than required to operate the engine 21 at an idling speed. Therefore, it may be desirable to provide a valve actuator 41 which is capable of varying the duration of each engine cycle over which the solenoid valves 39 are actuated, i.e., remain open to admit compressed gas, as the speed of the engine 21 is varied. A second embodiment of a valve actuator 41 which is capable of varying the duration of each engine cycle over which each of the valves 39 remains open to admit compressed gas to the cylinders 20 dependent upon the speed of the engine 21 will be described with reference to Fig.4 and Fig.5 wherein members corresponding to those of Fig.2 and Fig.3 bear like reference numbers. The wire 45 from the electricity source is attached to the post 47 by the nut 49. The post 47 has a annular contact ring 69 electrically connected to an end of the post 47 and arranged within the housing 53. The shaft 55 rotates at one half the speed of the engine as in the embodiment of Fig.2 and Fig.3. At an upper end of the shaft 55, a splined section 71 receives a sliding insulating member 73. The splined section 71 of the shaft 55 holds the insulating member 73 securely as it rotates with shaft 55 but permits the insulating member 73 to slide axially along the length of the splined section 71. Near the shaft 55, a conductive sleeve 72 is arranged in a bore 81 in an upper surface of the insulating element 73 generally parallel to the splined section 71. A contact 75, biased towards the annular contact ring 69 by a spring 77, is arranged within the conductive sleeve 72 and in contact with it. The conductive sleeve 72 also contacts a conductor 79 at a base of the bore 81. The conductor 79 extends to the upper surface of the insulating element 73 near an outer periphery of the insulating element 73 where the conductor 79 is electrically connected to a flexible contact 83. The flexible contact 83 connects, one after the other, with a series of radial contacts 85 which are positioned on an upper inside surface of the housing 53. A weak spring 87 arranged around the splined section 71 engages a stop member 89 secured on the shaft 55 and the insulating element 73 to slightly bias the insulating element 73 towards the upper inside surface of the housing 53 to ensure contact between the flexible contact 83 and the upper inside surface of the housing 53. As best seen in Fig.5, the radial contacts 85 on the upper inside surface of the housing 53 are arranged generally in the form of radial spokes extending from the centre of the housing 53 with the number of contacts being equal to the number of cylinders 20 in the engine 21. The number of degrees covered by each of the radial contacts 85 gradually increases as the distance from the centre of the upper inside surface of the housing 53 increases. In operation of the device of Fig.4 and Fig.5, as the shaft 55 rotates, electricity flows along a path through the wire 45 down through post 47 to the annular contact member 69 which is in constant contact with the spring biased contact 75. The electrical current passes through the conductive sleeve 72 to the conductor 79 and then to the flexible contact 83. As the flexible contact 83 rotates along with the insulating member 73 and the shaft 55, the tip of the flexible contact 83 successively engages each of the radial contacts 85 on the upper inside of the housing 53. As the speed of the shaft 55 increases, the insulating member 73 and the flexible contact 83 attached to it, move upwards along the splined section 71 of the shaft 55 due to the radial component of the splines in the direction of rotation under the influence of centrifugal force. As the insulating member 73 moves upwards, the flexible contact 83 is bent so that the tip of the contact 83 extends further outwards radially from the centre of the housing 53 (as seen in phantom lines in Fig.4). In other words, the effective length of the flexible contact 83 increases as the speed of the engine 21 increases. As the flexible contact 83 is bent and the tip of the contact 83 moves outwards, the tip remains in contact with each of the radial contacts 85 for a longer period of each engine cycle due to the increased angular width of the radial contacts with increasing distance from the centre of the housing 53. In this way, the length of time over which each of the valves 39 remains open is increased as the speed of the engine is increased. Thus, a larger quantity of compressed gas or air is injected into the cylinders as the speed increases. Conversely, as the speed decreases and the insulating member 73 moves downwards along the splined section 71, a minimum quantity of air is injected into the cylinder due to the shorter length of the individual radial contact 85 which is in contact with the flexible contact 83. In this way, the amount of compressed gas that is used during idling of the engine 21 is at a minimum whereas the amount of compressed gas which is required to increase the speed of the engine 21 to a level suitable to drive a vehicle on a highway is readily available. Shown in Fig.6 and Fig.7, is a third embodiment of a valve actuator 41 according to the present invention. This embodiment includes a curved insulating element 91 having it’s first end able to pivot, being secured by any suitable device such as screw 92 to the shaft 55 for co-rotation with the shaft 55. The screw 92 is screwed into a tapped hole in the insulating element 91 so that a tab 94 at an end of the screw 92 engages a groove 96 provided in the shaft 55. In this way, the insulating element 91 rotates positively with the shaft 55. However, as the shaft 55 rotates faster, the other end 98 of the insulating element 91 is permitted to pivot outwards under the influence of centrifugal force because of the groove 96 provided in the shaft 55. A spring 93, connected between the second end 98 of the element 91 and the shaft 55 urges the second end of the element 91 towards the centre of the housing 53. A contact 99 similar to the contact 59 (Fig.2) is arranged so that one end of the contact piece 99 is in constant contact with the conducting plate 51 located centrally within the housing 53. The other end of the contact 99 engages a conductive sleeve 101 arranged in bore 102. A contact element 95 is arranged in the conductive sleeve 101 in constant contact with the sleeve 101. The bore 102 is arranged generally parallel to the shaft 55 near the second end of the curved insulating element 91. The contact 95 is biased by a spring 97 towards the upper inside surface of the housing 53 for selective contact with each of the plurality of radial contacts 85 which increase in arc length towards the outer peripheral surface of the housing 53 (Fig.6). When the device shown in Fig.6 and Fig.7 is operating, as the shaft 55 rotates the curved insulating element 91 rotates with the shaft 55 and the second end 98 of the insulating element 91 tends to pivot about the shaft 55 due to centrifugal force. Thus, as the effective length of the contact 95 increases, i.e., as the curved insulating element 91 pivots further outwards, the number of degrees of rotation over which the contact 95 is in contact with each of the radial contacts 85 on the upper inside surface of the housing 53 increases thereby allowing each of the valves 39 to remain open for a longer period of each engine cycle, which in turn, allows more compressed gas enter the respective cylinder 20 to further increase the speed of the engine 21. With reference to Fig.1, a mechanical advance linkage 104 which is connected to the throttle linkage 35, advances the initiation of the opening of each valve 39 such that compressed gas is injected into the respective cylinder further before the piston 22 in the respective cylinder 20 reaches a Top Dead Centre position as the speed of the engine is increased by moving the throttle linkage 35. The advance linkage 104 is similar to a conventional standard mechanical advance employed on an internal combustion engine. In other words, the linkage 104 varies the relationship between the angular positions of a point on the shaft 55 and a point on the housing 53 containing the contacts. Alternatively, a conventional vacuum advance could also be employed. By advancing the timing of the opening of the valves 39, the speed of the engine can more easily be increased. The operation of the engine cycle according to the present invention will now be described. The compressed gas injected into each cylinder of the engine 21 drives the respective piston 22 downwards to rotate a conventional crankshaft (not shown). The movement of the piston downwards causes the compressed gas to expand rapidly and cool. As the piston 22 begins to move upwards in the cylinder 20 a suitable exhaust valve (not shown), arranged to close an exhaust passageway, is opened by any suitable apparatus. The expanded gas is then expelled through the exhaust passageway. As the piston 22 begins to move downwards again, a suitable intake valve opens to admit ambient air to the cylinder. The intake valve closes and the ambient air is compressed on the subsequent upward movement of the piston until the piston reaches approximately the Top Dead Centre position at which time the compressed gas is again injected into the cylinder 20 to drive the piston 22 downwards and the cycle begins again. In the case of adapting a conventional internal combustion engine for operation on compressed gas, a plurality of plates 103 are arranged, preferably over an end of the exhaust passageways, in order to reduce the outlet size of the exhaust passageways of the conventional internal combustion engine. In the illustrated embodiment, a single plate having an opening in the centre is bolted to the outside exhaust passageway on each bank of the V-8 engine, while another single plate having two openings in it, is arranged with one opening over each of the interior exhaust passageways on each bank of the V-8 engine. A line 105 is suitably attached to each of the adaptor plates to carry the exhaust to an appropriate location. In a preferred embodiment, the exhaust lines 105 are made from 1.5" plastic tubing. In a preferred embodiment, the exhaust lines 105 of one bank of the V-8 engine are collected in a line 107 and fed to an inlet of a compressor 109. The pressure of the exhaust gas emanating from the engine 21 according to the present invention is approximately 25 p.s.i. In this way, the compressor 109 does not have to pull the exhaust into the compressor since the gas exhausted from the engine 21 is at a positive pressure. The positive pressure of the incoming fluid increases the efficiency and reduces wear on the compressor 109. The exhaust gas is compressed in the compressor 109 and returned through a line 111 and a check valve 113 to the compressed gas storage tank 23. The check valve 113 prevents the flow of compressed gas stored in the tank 23 back towards the compressor 109. A suitable pressure sensor 115 is arranged at an upper end of the tank 23 and sends a signal along a line 117 when the pressure exceeds a predetermined level and when the pressure drops below a predetermined level. The line 117 controls an electrically activated clutch 119 positioned at the front end of the compressor 109. The clutch 119 is operated to engage and disengage the compressor 109 from a drive pulley 121. Also, the signal carried by the line 117 activates a suitable valve 123 arranged on compressor housing 125 to exhaust the air entering the compressor housing 125 from the line 107 when the clutch 119 has disengaged the compressor 109 from the drive pulley 121. In a preferred embodiment, when the pressure is the tank 23 reaches approximately 600 p.s.i., the clutch 119 is disengaged and the compressor 109 is deactivated and the valve 123 is opened to exhaust the expanded gas delivered to the compressor 109 from the line 107 to the atmosphere. When the pressure within the tank 23 drops below approximately 500 p.s.i., the sensor 115 sends a signal to engage the clutch 119 and close the valve 123, thereby operating the compressor 109 for supplying the tank 23 with compressed gas. The pulley 121 which drives the compressor 109 through the clutch 119 is driven by a belt 127 which is driven by a pulley 129 which operates through a gear box 131. With reference to Fig.1 and Fig.8, a second pulley 133 on the gear box is driven by a belt 135 from a pulley 137 arranged on a drive shaft 139 of the engine 21. The pulley 137 drives a splined shaft 140 which has a first gear 141 and a second larger gear 143 placed on it, which rotates with the splined shaft 140. The splined shaft 140 permits axial movement of the gears 141 and 143 along the shaft 140. In normal operation (as seen in Fig.8), the first gear 141 engages a third gear 145 arranged on a shaft 147 which drives the pulley 129. The shafts 140 and 147 are arranged in suitable bearings 149 positioned at each end of it. When the speed of the engine 21 drops below a predetermined level, a suitable sensor 151 responsive to the speed of the drive shaft 139 of the engine 21 generates a signal which is transmitted through a line 153 to a solenoid actuator 155 arranged within the gear box 131. The solenoid actuator 155 moves the first and second gears 141, 143 axially along the splined shaft 140 to the right as seen in Fig.8 so that the second, larger gear 143 engages a fourth smaller gear 157 which is arranged on the shaft 147. The ratio of the second gear 143 to the fourth gear 157 is preferably approximately 3 to 1. In this way, when the speed of the engine 21 drops below the predetermined level as sensed by the sensor 151 (which predetermined level is insufficient to drive the compressor 109 at a speed sufficient to generate the 500-600 pounds of pressure which is preferably in the tank 23), the solenoid actuator 155 is energised to slide the gears 143, 141 axially along the splined shaft 140 so that the second, larger gear 143 engages the fourth, smaller gear 157 to drive the pulley 129 and hence the compressor 109 at a higher rate, to generate the desired pressure. When the speed of the engine increases above the predetermined level, which, in a preferred embodiment is approximately 1500 rpm, the solenoid actuator 155 is deactivated by the sensor 151 thereby moving the gears 143 and 141 to the left as seen in Fig.8 so that the first gear 141, engages again with the third gear 145 to effectuate a 1 to 1 ratio between the output shaft 139 of the engine 21 and the pulley 129. The other bank of the V-8 engine has its exhaust ports arranged with adapter plates 103 similar to those on the first bank. However, the exhaust from this bank of the engine 21 is not collected and circulated through the compressor 109. In a preferred embodiment, a portion of the exhaust is collected in a line 159 and fed to an enlarged chamber 161. A second fluid is fed through a line 163 into the chamber 161 to be cooled by the cool exhaust emanating from the engine 21 in the line 159. The second fluid in the line 163 may be either transmission fluid contained in a transmission associated with the engine 21 or a portion of the oil used to lubricate the engine 21. A second portion of the exhaust from the second bank of the V-8 engine is removed from the line 159 in a line 165 and used as a working fluid in an air conditioning system or for any other suitable use. It should be noted that the particular arrangement utilised for collecting and distributing the gas exhausted from the engine 21 would be determined by the use for which the engine is employed. In other words, it may be advantageous to rearrange the exhaust tubing such that a larger or smaller percentage of the exhaust is routed through the compressor 109. It should also be noted that since the exhaust lines 105 are plastic tubing, a rearrangement of the lines for a different purpose is both simple and inexpensive. In operation of the engine of the present invention, the engine 21 is started by energising the solenoid valve 29 and any suitable starting device (not shown), e.g., a conventional electric starter as used on an internal combustion engine. Compressed gas from the full tank 23 flows through the line 25 and a variable amount of the compressed gas is admitted to the distributor 33 by controlling the regulator valve 31 through the linkage 33 and the operator actuated throttle linkage 35. The compressed gas is distributed to each of the lines 37 which lead to the individual cylinders 20. The compressed gas is admitted to each of the cylinders 20 in timed relationship to the position of the pistons within the cylinders by opening the valves 39 with the valve actuator 41. When it is desired to increase the speed of the engine, the operator moves the throttle linkage 35 which simultaneously admits a larger quantity of compressed gas to the distributor 33 from the tank 23 by further opening the regulator valve 31. The timing of the valve actuator 41 is also advanced through the linkage 104. Still further, as the speed of the engine 21 increases, the effective length of the rotating contact 83 (Fig.4) or 95 (Fig.6) increases thereby electrically contacting a wider portion of one of the stationary radial contacts 85 to cause each of the valves 39 to remain open for a longer period of each engine cycle to admit a larger quantity of compressed gas to each of the cylinders 20. As can be seen, the combination of the regulating valve 31, the mechanical advance 104, and the valve actuator 41, combine to produce a compressed gas engine which is quickly and efficiently adaptable to various operating speeds. However, all three of the controls need not be employed simultaneously. For example, the mechanical advance 104 could be utilised without the benefit of one of the varying valve actuators 41 but the high speed operation of the engine may not be as efficient. By increasing the duration of each engine cycle over which each of the valves 39 remains open to admit compressed gas to each of the cylinders 20 as the speed increases, conservation of compressed gas during low speed operation and efficient high speed operation are both possible. After the compressed gas admitted to the cylinder 20 has forced the piston 22 downwards within the cylinder to drive the shaft 139 of the engine, the piston 22 moves upwards within the cylinder 20 and forces the expanded gas out through a suitable exhaust valve (not shown) through the adapter plate 103 (if employed) and into the exhaust line 105. The cool exhaust can then be collected in any suitable arrangement to be compressed and returned to the tank 23 or used for any desired purpose including use as a working fluid in an air conditioning system or as a coolant for oil. When using the apparatus and method of the present invention to adapt a ordinary internal combustion engine for operation with compressed gas it can be seen that considerable savings in weight are achieved. For example, the ordinary cooling system including a radiator, fan, hoses, etc. can be eliminated since the compressed gas is cooled as it expands in the cylinder. In addition, there are no explosions within the cylinder to generate heat. Further reductions in weight are obtained by employing plastic tubing for the lines which carry the compressed gas between the distributor and the cylinders and for the exhaust lines. Once again, heavy tubing is not required since there is little or no heat generated by the engine of the present invention. In addition, the noise generated by an engine according to the present invention is considerably less than that generated by an ordinary internal combustion engine since there are no explosions taking place within the cylinders. The principles of preferred embodiments of the present invention have been described in the foregoing specification. However, the invention which is intended to be protected is not to be construed as limited to the particular embodiments disclosed. The embodiments are to be regarded as illustrative rather than restrictive. Variations and changes may be made by others without departing from the spirit of the invention. Accordingly, it is expressly intended that all such variations and changes which fall within the spirit and the scope of the present invention as defined in the appended claims be embraced thereby. This patent shows how the practical details of running an engine on compressed air can be dealt with. What it does not show is background details of the actual energy flows and the effects of compressing air and then letting it expand. These things are not normally encountered in our daily lives and so we do not have an immediate intuitive feel for how a system like these will operate. Take the effects of expansion. While it is quite well known that letting a compressed gas expand causes cooling, the practical effect is seldom realised. This web site show the details of a “vortex tube” which is a completely passive device with no moving parts:  This device does things which you would not expect. Compressed air at a normal temperature of, say, seventy degrees Centigrade is fed into the circular chamber where the shape of the chamber causes it to spiral rapidly as it exits the tube:  There is an energy gain in a vortex, as can be seen in a hurricane or tornado, but the really interesting thing here is the dramatic change in temperature caused by the change in pressure as the air expands. The ratio of heat gain to heat loss is controlled by the ratio of the sizes of the openings, which is why there is an adjustable nozzle on the small opening. The air exiting through the large opening is much higher volume than the air exiting through the small opening and it expands very rapidly, producing a massive drop in temperature. The density of this cold air is now much higher than the air entering the vortex chamber. So there has been both a drop in temperature and an increase in density. These features of the expansion are made use of in the Leroy Rogers engine design, where some of the expanded air exhaust of the engine is compressed and passed back to the main air storage tank. While the compressor does raise the air temperature as it pumps the air back into the tank, it does not reach its original temperature instantly. This results in the air temperature inside the tank dropping as the engine operates. But, the lowered tank temperature causes an inflow of heat from its immediate environment, raising the overall tank temperature again. This warming of the chilled air causes the tank pressure to increase further, giving an energy gain, courtesy of the local environment. It is important to understand that it takes less energy to compress air than the kinetic energy which can be generated by letting that compressed air expand again. This is a practical situation, courtesy of the local environment and is not a breach of the law of Conservation of Energy. It is also a feature which has not yet been exploited to any great degree and which is just waiting to be used by any adventurous inventor or experimenter. The Eber Van Valkinburg Engine. Eber presents a custom engine based on these principles. His engine uses both compressed air and compressed oil to manipulate pressures within the system and provide an engine which is self-powered. Here is a slightly re-worded copy of the Eber Van Valkinburg patent: Patent US 3,744,252 10th July 1973 Inventor: Eber Van Valkinburg CLOSED MOTIVE POWER SYSTEM UTILISING COMPRESSED FLUIDS ABSTRACT Stored energy in a compressed elastic fluid is utilised in a controlled manner to pressurise an inelastic fluid and to maintain such pressurisation. The pressurised inelastic fluid is throttled to the impeller of a prime mover. Only a portion of the output energy from the prime mover is utilised to circulate the inelastic fluid so as to maintain a nearly constant volumetric balance in the system. DESCRIPTION The objective of the invention is to provide a closed-loop power system which utilises the expansive energy of a compressed elastic fluid, such as air, to pressurise and maintain pressurised throughout the operational cycle of the system a second non-elastic and non-compressible fluid, such as oil. The pressurised non-elastic fluid is released in a controlled manner by a throttle to the rotary impeller of a turbine or the like, having an output shaft. This shaft is coupled to a pump for the non-elastic fluid which automatically maintains the necessary circulation needed for the operation of the prime mover, and maintains a near volumetric balance in the system between the two fluids which are separated by self-adjusting free piston devices. The pump for the non-elastic fluid includes an automatic by-pass for the non-elastic fluid which eliminates the possibility of starving the pump which depends on the discharge of the non-elastic fluid at low pressure from the exhaust of the turbine. Other features and advantages of the invention will become apparent during the course of the following detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWING FIGURES Fig.1 is a partly schematic cross-sectional view of a closed motive power system embodying the invention.  Fig.2 is a fragmentary perspective view of a rotary prime mover utilised in the system. Fig.3 is an enlarged fragmentary vertical section through the prime mover taken at right angles to its rotational axis. Fig.4 is an enlarged fragmentary vertical section taken on line 4--4 of Fig.1. Fig.5 is a similar section taken on line 5--5 of Fig.4. DETAILED DESCRIPTION  Referring to the drawings in detail, in which the same numbers refer to the same parts in each drawing, the numeral 10 designates a supply bottle or tank for a compressed elastic fluid, such as air. Preferably, the air in the bottle 10 is compressed to approximately 1,500 p.s.i. The compressed air from the bottle 10 is delivered through a suitable pressure regulating valve 11 to the chamber 12 of a high pressure tank 13 on one side of a free piston 14 in the bore of such tank. The free piston 14 separates the chamber 12 for compressed air from a second chamber 15 for an inelastic fluid, such as oil, on the opposite side of the free piston. The free piston 14 can move axially within the bore of the cylindrical tank 13 and is constantly self-adjusting there to maintain a proper volumetric balance between the two separated fluids of the system. The free piston has the ability to maintain the two fluids, air and oil, completely separated during the operation of the system. The regulator valve 11 delivers compressed air to the chamber 12 under a pressure of approximately 500 p.s.i. The working inelastic fluid, oil, which fills the chamber 15 of high pressure tank 13 is maintained under 500 p.s.i. pressure by the expansive force of the elastic compressed air in the chamber 12 on the free piston 14. The oil in the chamber 15 is delivered to a prime mover 16, such as an oil turbine, through a suitable supply regulating or throttle valve 17 which controls the volume of pressurised oil delivered to the prime mover. The turbine 16 embodies a stator consisting of a casing ring 18 and end cover plates 19 joined to it in a fluid- tight manner. It further embodies a single or plural stage impeller or rotor having bladed wheels 20, 21 and 22 in the illustrated embodiment. The peripheral blades 23 of these turbine wheels receive the motive fluid from the pressurised chamber 15 through serially connected nozzles 24, 25 and 26, connected generally tangentially through the stator ring 18, as shown in Fig.3. The first nozzle 24 shown schematically in Fig.1 is connected directly with the outlet of the throttle valve 17. The successive nozzles 25 and 26 deliver the pressurised working fluid serially to the blades 23 of the turbine wheels 21 and 22, all of the turbine wheels being suitably coupled to a central axial output or working shaft 27 of the turbine 16.  Back-pressure sealing blocks 28, made of fibre, are contained within recesses 29 of casing ring 18 to prevent co-mingling of the working fluid and exhaust at each stage of the turbine. A back-pressure sealing block 28 is actually only required in the third stage between inlet 26 and exhaust 31, because of the pressure distribution, but such a block can be included in each stage as shown in Fig.1. The top surface, including a sloping face portion 30 on each block 28, reacts with the pressurised fluid to keep the fibre block sealed against the adjacent, bladed turbine wheel; and the longer the slope on the block to increase it’s top surface area, the greater will be the sealing pressure pushing it against the periphery of the wheel. Leading from the final stage of the turbine 16 is a low-pressure working fluid exhaust nozzle 31 which delivers the working fluid, oil, into an oil supply chamber or reservoir 32 of a low pressure tank 33 which may be bolted to the adjacent end cover plate 19 of the turbine, as indicated at 34. The oil entering the reservoir chamber 32 from the exhaust stage of the turbine is at a pressure of about 3-5 p.s.i. In a second chamber 35 of the low pressure tank 33 separated from the chamber 32 by an automatically moving or self-adjusting free piston 36, compressed air at a balancing pressure of from 3-5 p.s.i. is maintained by a second pressure regulating valve 37. The pressure regulating valve 37 is connected with the compressed air supply line 38 which extends from the regulating valve 11 to the high pressure chamber 12 for compressed air. Within the chamber 32 is a gear pump 39 or the like having its input shaft connected by a coupling 40 with the turbine shaft 27. Suitable reduction gearing 41 for the pump may be provided internally, as shown, or in any other conventional manner, to gear down the rotational speed derived from the turbine shaft. The pump 39 is supplied with the oil in the filled chamber 32 delivered by the exhaust nozzle or conduit 31 from the turbine. The pump, as illustrated, has twin outlet or delivery conduits 42 each having a back-pressure check valve 43 connected therein and each delivering a like volume of pressurised oil back to the high pressure chamber 15 at a pressure of about 500 p.s.i. The pump 39 also has twin fluid inlets. The pump employed is preferably of the type known on the market as "Hydreco Tandem Gear Pump," Model No. 151515, L12BL, or equivalent. In some models, other types of pumps could be employed including pumps having a single inlet and outlet. The illustrated pump will operate clockwise or counter-clockwise and will deliver 14.1 g.p.m. at 1,800 r.p.m. and 1,500 p.s.i. Therefore, in the present application of the pump 39, it will be operating at considerably less than capacity and will be under no undue stress.   Since the pump depends for its supply of fluid on the delivery of oil at low pressure from the turbine 16 into the chamber 32, an automatically operating by-pass sleeve valve device 44 for oil is provided as indicated in Fig.1, Fig.4 and Fig.5. This device comprises an exterior sleeve or tube 45 having one end directly rigidly secured as at 46 to the movable free piston 36. This sleeve 45 is provided with slots 47 intermediate its ends. A co-acting interior sleeve 48 engages telescopically and slidably within the sleeve 45 and has a closed end wall 49 and ports or slots 50 intermediate its ends, as shown. The sleeve 48 communicates with one of the delivery conduits 42 by way of an elbow 51, and the sleeve 48 is also connected with the adjacent end of the pump 39, as shown. As long as the chamber 32 is filled with low pressure oil sufficient to balance the low air pressure in the chamber 35 on the opposite side of free piston 36, such piston will be positioned as shown in Fig.1 and Fig.4 so that the slots 47 and 50 of the two sleeves 45 and 48 are out of registration and therefore no flow path exists through them. Under such circumstances, the oil from the chamber 32 will enter the pump and will be delivered by the two conduits 42 at the required pressure to the chamber 15. Should the supply of oil from the turbine 16 to the chamber 32 diminish so that pump 39 might not be adequately supplied, then the resulting drop in pressure in the chamber 32 will cause the free piston 36 to move to the left in Fig.1 and bring the slots 47 into registration or partial registration with the slots 50, as depicted in Fig.5. This will instantly establish a by-pass for oil from one conduit 42 back through the elbow 51 and tubes 48 and 45 and their registering slots to the oil chamber 32 to maintain this chamber filled and properly pressurised at all times. The by-pass arrangement is completely automatic and responds to a diminished supply of oil from the turbine into the chamber 32, so long as the required compressed air pressure of 3-5 p.s.i. is maintained in the chamber 35. Briefly, in summary, the system operates as follows. The pressurised inelastic and non-compressible fluid, oil, from the chamber 15 is throttled into the turbine 16 by utilising the throttle valve 17 in a control station. The resulting rotation of the shaft 27 produces the required mechanical energy or work to power a given instrumentality, such as a propeller. A relatively small component of this work energy is utilised through the coupling 40 to drive the pump 39 which maintains the necessary volumetric flow of oil from the turbine back into the high pressure chamber 15, with the automatic by-pass 44 coming into operation whenever needed. The ultimate source of energy for the closed power system is the compressed elastic fluid, air, in the tank or bottle 10 which through the regulating valves 11 and 37 maintains a constant air pressure in the required degree in each of the chambers 12 and 35. As described, the air pressure in the high pressure chamber 12 will be approximately 500 p.s.i. and in the low pressure chamber 35 will be approximately 3-5 p.s.i. It may be observed in Fig.1 that the tank 33 is enlarged relative to the tank 13 to compensate for the space occupied by the pump and associated components. The usable volumes of the two tanks are approximately equal. In an operative embodiment of the invention, the two free pistons 14 and 36 and the tank bores receiving them are 8 inches in diameter. The approximate diameters of the bladed turbine wheels are 18 inches. The pump 39 is approximately 10 inches long and 5 inches in diameter. The tank 13 is about 21 inches long between its crowned end walls. The tank 33 is 10 inches in diameter adjacent to the pump 39. The terms and expressions which have been employed herein are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention, in the use of such terms and expressions, of excluding any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof but it is recognised that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention claimed. This engine is based on an entirely different principle, and one which is not spoken about very often. Hurricanes or “twisters” as they are sometimes called, are large rotating air masses of incredible power which develop in hot areas which are more than eight degrees North or South of the equator. The distance from the equator is essential as the rotation of the Earth is needed to give them their initial spin. They usually develop over water which is at a temperature of twenty-eight degrees Centigrade or higher as that allows the air to absorb enough heat energy to get started. That is why there is a distinct “hurricane season” in these areas, since at certain times of the year the ocean temperature is just not high enough to trigger a hurricane. What is not generally realised is that a hurricane develops excess energy due to its swirling circular movement. The generation of this extra power was observed and documented by Viktor Schauberger of Austria, who also used his observations to great effect. I think that what Schauberger says makes some people uncomfortable as they seem to think that anything “unorthodox” has to be weird and too peculiar to be mentioned. This is rather strange as all that is involved here is a simple observation of how our environment actually works. A hurricane is wider at the top than at the bottom and this concentrates power at the base of the swirling mass of air. This tapered rotation is called a “vortex” which is just a simple name to describe the shape, but any mention of “vortex power” (the power at the base of this rotation) seems to make many people uncomfortable which is most peculiar. Leaving that aside, the question is “can we use this energy gain from the environment for our own purposes?”. The answer may well be “Yes”. Perhaps this principle is utilised by Richard Clem. In 1992, Richard Clem of Texas, demonstrated a self-powered engine of an unusual type. This engine, which he had been developing for twenty years or more, weighs about 200 pounds (90 kilos) and generated a measured 350 horsepower continuously over the full period of a nine-day self-powered test. Although this engine which runs from 1,800 to 2,300 rpm is especially suited to powering an electrical generator, Richard did install one in a car, and estimated that it would run for 150,000 miles without any need for attention and without any kind of fuel. Richard said that his prototype car had reached a speed of 105 mph. Just after receiving funding to produce his engine, Richard died suddenly and unexpectedly at about 48 years of age, the death certificate having “heart attack” written on it as the cause of death. Remarkably convenient timing for the oil companies who would have lost major amounts of money through reduced fuel sales if Richard’s motor had gone into production. The motor is unusual in that it is a rotary turbine style design which runs at a temperature of 3000F (1400C) and because of that high temperature, uses cooking oil as its operational fluid, rather than water as the oil has a much higher boiling point. To a quick glance, this looks like an impossible device as it appears to be a purely mechanical engine, which will definitely have an operating efficiency which is less than 100%. In broad outline, the oil is pumped through a pipe and into the narrow end of the cone-shaped rotor. The engine is started by being rotated by an external starter motor until it reaches the speed at which it generates enough power to be sustain its own operation. The rapid spinning of the cone, causes the oil to run along spiral grooves cut in the inner face of the cone and exit through angled nozzles placed at the large end of the cone:   The operating pressure produced by the pump is 300 to 500 psi. Richard did not attempt to patent his engine as US Patent 3,697,190 “Truncated Conical Drag Pump” granted in 1972 as a liquid-asphalt pump is so close in detail that Richard felt that there was insufficient difference for him to be granted a patent:  There appears to be considerable scope for anyone who wishes to build or manufacture this engine and it is capable of acting as a heater as well as device for producing mechanical power. This suggests that water purification could be an additional “extra” option for this engine. Prof. Alfred Evert of Germany has produced an analysis of the operation of the Clem Engine and turbines in this general category. His website has this to say: 07.05. Centrifugal-Thrust-Engine Objectives Several different versions of air-drive engines have been described in the previous chapters. One which is particularly powerful, is the “Suction-Cylinder-Engine” when driven by compressed air. Water-drive engines require a much more complex arrangement of closed circuits due to the strong centrifugal forces caused by using such a dense working-medium. This new concept of the “Centrifugal-Thrust-Engine” shows that centrifugal forces can contribute to turning momentum. Initially, however, we need to discuss some general points of view concerning the inertia of rotating systems. Gravity and Centrifugal Forces First, consider the movement of a mass (a sphere or body of water) moving in a circular path around the inside wall of a hollow cylinder. Centrifugal forces always press radially outwards while Gravitational forces always act straight downwards. Fig 07.05.01 shows diagrams of three situations. A partial plan view of such a cylinder is shown in grey. This cylinder has a radius of 100 cm (R100). Along its inner wall, mass M is moving at a speed of 3.13 m/s (see arrow V3.13). This mass is continuously pushed inwards by the cylinder. This inward acceleration A can be calculated by the formula Speed squared divided by Radius, in this case, with 3.13 m/s at a radius of 1 m, acceleration A = (3.13)2 / 1 = 9.8 m/s2.  Matching that inward acceleration is the outward centrifugal force of that mass. That centrifugal force (A9.8) is shown as the red vector in the diagram. Gravitational acceleration is also about 9.8 m/s2, and is shown here as the green vector ( G9.8) in the diagram, acting vertically downwards. The resulting force is shown as the blue line in the diagram. If the cylinder wall were replaced by the inside surface of a cone with a 45 degree inclination, then the mass would rotate at the same speed, maintaining a constant height. Now, consider the middle diagram. Here, the radius distance to the wall is only 24 cm (R24) and the mass is only moving at 1.5 m/s (V1.5). The inward, or “centripetal” acceleration produced is A = 1.52 / 0.24 which is 9.8 m/s2 so, here again, the centrifugal force (A9.8) corresponds to acceleration under gravity (G9.8). Consequently, the diagram of the resolution of forces matches that of the previous diagram. So whenever a mass completes one rotation in exactly one second, the centripetal (inward) acceleration is the same as acceleration under gravity. At a radius of 1 m, the circumference is about 3.13 m and so the speed is about 3.13 m/s for one rotation per second. At a radius of 0.24 m, the circumference is about 1.5 m and so one rotation per second requires a speed of 1.5 m/s, and so identical results are produced. Whether this happens to be a pure coincidence or due to some other cause, is discussed later in the section entitled “Aether Physics”. In the lowest section of Fig 07.05.01, a rotation at this same speed of 1.5 m/s (V1.5), but this time at the shorter radius of, say, 16 cm (R16) produces a stronger inward acceleration given by A = 1.52 / 0.16 which works out at about 14 m/s2. As the force diagram shows, this results in the mass rotating along a circular track which is higher up than the previous tracks. This can be seen in action when coffee in a cup is being stirred vigourously. Lifting-Force Now consider Fig 07.05.02 which illustrates the effects of imposing higher rotational speeds on a mass. The radius of 24 cm (R24) and of 16 cm (R16) are now each propelled at the higher rate of 6 m/s (V6). The inward “centripetal” acceleration is correspondingly greater and is given by the equation A = 62 / 0.24 which works out at about 150 m/s2 (A150) and about 225 m/s2 ( A225 ) respectively.  In both of these cases, the centrifugal force is substantially greater than the gravitational force (shown as the short green near-vertical vector marked as G9.8) and so the resulting net forces (shown in blue in the diagram) are much closer to the horizontal than before. These masses will therefore rotate at a constant height when moving along the inner face of a cone which has much steeper walls (shown in grey). The lowest diagram of Fig 07.05.02 shows the situation where these forces press against a less steeply sloping wall (shown in grey). The wall resists this pressure by pressing back at right angles to its surface (dark green vectors). Consequently, the remainder of the nearly horizontal centrifugal force produces an upward component (H20 and H30, shown in red), parallel to the sloping face of the wall. Depending on the speed of the mass and the angle of inclination of the wall, this upward force causes an acceleration of the mass, upwards along the wall. In these examples, that acceleration is about 20 to 30 m/s2. In our example of coffee being stirred in a cup, the faster the stirring and the more angled the sides of the cup, the larger the amount of coffee which spills over the lip of the cup. Notice that part of this centrifugal force becomes a component which acts in a direction opposite to gravity. In our example, the 6 m/s (six revolutions per second or 360 rpm), produces a lifting-force which is much greater than the force of gravity. Spiral Tracks In Fig 07.05.03, the diagrams on the left hand side show sphere A, which might be a bowling ball, rolling in a straight line from right to left on a flat, horizontal surface. The plan view presented immediately below, shows that the movement of the sphere is a straight line. However, as shown at the bottom left of the Figure, if the sphere is projected at an angle, into a vertical cylinder, then it follows an upward helical track from E to F in the diagram. The path followed is similar to a screw thread inside a nut or on the outside of a bolt. This same path would be followed if the moving object were a jet of water rather than a solid sphere.  The corresponding three diagrams on the right hand side of Fig 07.05.03 show the situation for the sphere if instead of a vertical cylinder, it is projected into an inverted cone shape. In this instance, the path followed is a spiral curve starting at point K and continuing to point L. When this movement is shown on a flat surface, you will notice that the sphere rolls in a curve towards point D. This shows clearly that there is an additional sideways force C acting on the sphere, causing this curved path. This has the effect that when the sphere is projected into the cone shape, it exits at point L with a greater upward angle than that with which it enters the cone at point K. This effect is also seen if a jet of water is used rather than a sphere or bowling ball. It should also be realised that as the sphere runs upwards along the inside surface of the cone, that it’s path gets progressively steeper the further it rolls. Steeper, Shorter and Faster In Fig 07.05.04 the inner surface of the cone of Fig 07.05.03 is shown opened out to form a flat surface. The cross-lines shown are positioned to indicate each 30 degree strip of the conical surface. If a jet of water is projected into the lower edge of the cone at point A, at an angle of 30 degrees, then it will exit from the top of the cone at point B some 150 degrees later (sector S150). The angle of exit is also 30 degrees and the spiral track C, shown in blue, is the path followed during it’s constant, steady rise though the cone.  The blue line D shows what happens when a jet of water is projected into the cone. It enters the lower edge of the cone at an angle of 30 degrees as before, but this time the water velocity is greater. As a result of this higher velocity, the water now exits from the upper edge of the cone at a steeper angle of about 35 degrees. That track D runs within a sector of the cone which spans only 120 degrees (S120) and so the track followed is shorter, steeper and covered more quickly than the jet of water flowing along the previous track C. The diagram at the bottom right hand side of Fig 07.05.02, shows the cone as seen from the top. Track C with its constant rate of rise is shown, as is the steeper and shorter track D. The far side of the cone, shows several paths which indicate how the water flows if the angle of entry at the bottom of the cone, is increased in steps. The diagram at the bottom left shows the cross-sectional view of the section of cone used in this discussion. It shows how the water enters at the bottom edge, moves along the inner wall and exits from the upper edge of the cone. The vector M shows the diagonal thrust of the water against the wall of the cone. This is the direct equivalent of the two forces G (against the wall) and H (upwards along the wall). Force H is much greater here than with the earlier example where the rate of upward movement was constant. Provisional Result In this first section, only well-known facts have been mentioned. However, an understanding of these examples and their points of view will be important during the following discussion: We have noted that:
Rotor-Cylinder Fig 07.05.05 shows a representation of a turbine T. Initially, this is shown as a round cylinder. At the top left hand side of the diagram, a vertical cross-section is shown, and to the right of that is the view from above. The diagram at the bottom of the Figure shows the inside wall of the cylinder opened out and laid on a flat surface. The cylinder in this example has a radius of 16 cm (R16) and a circumference of 1 metre. Circular pipes are positioned vertically around the circumference to act in a similar way to turbine-blades (TS shown in blue). Here, twelve of these pipes are shown, each parallel to the system axis and running in a straight line from bottom to top.  A 6 m/s jet of water enters the bottom of these pipes at an upward angle of 30 degrees. Due to the rotation of the cylinder drum, the water moves along the diagonal path A to B. As explained earlier, the water has a horizontal velocity component marked in red in the diagram as V6, and because of the angle of entry of the water, there is a vertical speed of about 3.5 m/s (shown in green and marked as V3.5). The water flowing in these pipes actually flows in a spiral path diagonally upwards, following the path shown by the blue line running from A to B. If the height of the cylinder is 24 cm (H24), then the water moves around through the whole of sector S150 during its upward flow through the vertical pipes. Rotor-Cone At the top left hand side of Fig 07.05.06 a conical cylinder turbine T is shown. The pipes running up the inside of the cone are set with a 16 cm radius at the lower edge of the cone (R16) and a 24 cm radius (R24) at the top of the cone. These pipes therefore have a curved shape as they run up the inside face of the cone. These pipes can be thought of as performing the same function as turbine blades in a jet engine.  In the same way as before, a jet of water is fed at an upward angle of 30 degrees into the bottom of the pipes. Unlike the previous case, the jet of water does not strike the walls of the pipes at their lowest point because the water is entering parallel to a diagonal wall. In this case, as before, the overall height of the cylinder is 24 cm. The track taken by the water will be exactly the same as the previous track, running from A to B shown in the previous diagram, and again spanning a sector of 150 degrees (S150). The central diagram of Fig 07.05.06 shows the conical cylinder surface laid out flat. The dark blue curve C shows the path taken by the jet of water as it spirals upwards and outwards from A to B, within the sector S150 shaded in blue. Interestingly, since the cone circumference at the outlet level is longer than at the inlet level (having 24 cm and 16 cm lengths respectively), the cone actually rotates at a greater speed than the speed of the water. This means that the water accelerates as it passes up through the curved pipes inside the cone (although that is not the intended job of any turbine). As shown in the top right hand diagram, the pipes inside this conical turbine need to be curved backwards in the opposite direction to that in which the turbine rotates. These pipes are curved to follow the path shown in red and marked G which is contained within the 50 degree sector S50. As stated earlier, the water flowing in these pipes presses against the outer wall, due to centrifugal force. Once the water speed is great enough, the water gets lifted upwards by its own motion. If the pipes allow that additional upward motion, then the water will exit from the top of the pipes at a more acute angle than the angle of entry at the bottom of the pipes. The bottom diagram shows a design arrangement where the water enters at an angle of 30 degrees (point E), and exits at the same 30 degree angle (at point F). With this arrangement, the water travels along a shorter, steeper path D in a narrower sector of just 120 degrees (S120). Due to this shorter path, the pipe follows a different curve, such as the one shown in red and marked H in the diagram. The pipe itself, is contained in a sector of just 40 degrees (S40). The diagram at the top right hand side of the Figure, show this short pipe run. The water enters at point A and flows upwards through the pipe marked G, to exit at point B. Notice that the pipe curves away from the direction of rotation. This is because the pipe acts something like a jet engine and the direction of thrust is in the opposite direction to the direction of the jet of water coming out of the pipe. The pipe shown in this illustration covers a sector of 50 degrees. However, remember that the water flowing in that pipe covers a sector of 150 degrees due to the rotation of the turbine cone. The lower pipe H shows the other design and it spans just 40 degrees. Water in that pipe flows upwards from E to F and passes through 120 degrees due to the rotation of the turbine cone, and it also flows faster and reaches its outlet earlier. These different pipes are only shown on a single turbine cone for illustration purposes, as any turbine construction will have all of its pipes constructed to one design or the other and not a mix of the two shapes. Turbine-Blades On the left hand side of Figure 07.05.07, shown in red, is the ‘neutral’ track H of the actual water flow when crossing a cylindrical sector of 40 degrees (S40). Also shown in the top left hand diagram, (shown in dark blue) is the corresponding steep track D followed by the water when it flows across a cylindrical sector of 120 degrees (S120). In the lower left hand diagram, the corresponding paths for the flows across a conical turbine surface are shown.  However, if the flowing water is to be used to generate a driving force on the turbine cylinder or cone, then the diagrams on the right hand side of the Figure show the necessary arrangement. To achieve this aim, the pipes carrying the water need to be curved to a greater degree. Here, the curve of the pipes is increased by, say, an arbitrary additional 50 degrees to give a total of 90 degrees, as indicated by the curves marked L (shown in red) within sector S90. Correspondingly, track K (shown in blue) is curved more sharply upwards with its sector reduced to a width of just 70 degrees (S70). This amount is the previous 120 degrees, reduced by our arbitrary 50 degrees. The upper right hand side diagram shows the design for a cylindrical turbine while the diagram below it shows the design for a conical turbine. The thin lines H and D show the original curves which would not apply any turning force to the turbine pipes were the water to flow through them. These paths could be called the ‘neutral’ tracks as they do not impart any thrust, and it takes the greater curvature shown by the thick lines to actually drive the turbine. Cone-Wall and Cone-Turbine The lower section of Fig 07.05.08 shows the cross-section of turbine T which has a radius of 24 cm (R24) at its upper edge and a radius of 16 cm (R16) at its lower edge and which has a height of about 24 cm (H24). Below the main conical turbine (shown below the dotted line) there is an inlet section marked as TE and which has an additional height of 12 cm (H12), and which tapers down to a radius of 12 cm (R12).  In the previous example, the general arrangement of the turbine-blades TS (shown in red), being curved pipes inside the turbine, was discussed. In this example, grooves are formed in the outer surface of the turbine cone. These grooves, or indentations, are open on the outside and the turbine cone is housed inside a cylindrical outer housing shown in grey and designated as KW. This outer wall supports an inner conical housing (not shown) and the turbine rotor revolves inside that conical housing. Water (shown as light blue) fills the space between the turbine rotor and the outer conical housing. The water is bounded on one side by the smooth wall of the outer housing and on the other by the saw tooth shaped vertical grooves which form the turbine “blades”. This example is needed to explain the curvature of the grooves at the surface of the cone. Unlike standard turbines, the water flows from a short radius inlet, to a much larger radius outlet. Water can’t accelerate to reach the greater speed needed at the longer radius, so normal turbines have the water flowing from the longer radius inward towards the shorter radius. This causes deceleration of the water flow to generate torque. Consequently, our design here appears ‘wrong’ in conventional terms, and seems to make no sense in normal applications. This ‘wrong’ design only makes sense when using a cone-like rotor with its saw tooth-like blades. Sawtooth-Blades Mechanical turning momentum (torque) is generated by flows which press against one side of the turbine blades. Commonly, turbines have blades where a groove is effectively created between two successive blades. In effect, the driving pressure of a turbine is applied to one face of this virtual groove. With this arrangement, the leading face represents the “pressure” side and the trailing face represents the “suction” side. The generation of torque is based on the difference of pressure between these two wall faces. This pressure difference is maximised if there is no suction side at all, that is, when there is no pressure at all on the “suction” side. This is possible along the surfaces of a cone-shaped turbine which has saw tooth-like grooves as already described. These turbine “blades” have a pressure-side which faces in a radial direction relative to the direction of rotation. Each groove has a ‘bottom’ or inner side which faces in a tangential direction. Water flow which moves diagonally outwards effectively flows parallel to that inner face. The pressure-side plus the inner-side, form the contours of an asymmetric saw tooth shaped groove. Each inner-side extends from the inner edge of the pressure-side to the outer edge of the following pressure-side. These triangular shaped grooves effectively have no backside wall. In Fig 07.05.08, the cross-sectional view shows several axial levels marked with the dotted lines A to H. The plan-view diagram shown at the top of the Figure indicates where these levels extend horizontally. At inlet level A, the radius is 12 cm and a ring-shaped cross-sectional surface is available for water to enter between the round turbine face and the round cone-shaped wall of the housing (drawn here across a sector of 30 degrees). Further up, these tooth-shaped blades extend further out of the surface of the turbine cone. At point B, the inner edge still has a radius of nearly 12 cm, while the outer edge extends further out into the ring-shaped groove. Here for example, twelve turbine “blades” are shown, and in the 60 degree sector B, there are two of these “saw-teeth”. Level C marks the junction between the turbine-inlet area (TE) to the main body of the turbine (T). The turbine “teeth” at this level have a radius of 16 cm and this level has the deepest grooves. This sector of 60 degrees has two of these teeth TS. Further up, the outer circumference becomes greater and the notches become longer. If the cross-sectional area for water flow were to remain constant, then the notches would need to be correspondingly shallower. In sectors D, E and F, which again span a 60 degree sector, two turbine-blades are shown in each sector. As sector H covers only 30 degrees, it contains just one tooth. At this top level, which has a radius of 24 cm, is located the turbine outlet, where water should exit, forming a homogenous flat jet. Consequently, the contours of the turbine rotor grooves should be ring-shaped. Also, the water which previous ran along the inner side of a cone-shaped wall, now is contained in a space between that wall and the inner turbine cone. These surfaces can effectively be a nozzle and this long groove can have additional divider walls (shown as thick red lines), to enlarge the pressure-surfaces in this area. Winding Staircase Fig 07.05.09 attempts to give the impression of the spiral arrangement of the previously described tooth-shaped notches running around the surface of the turbine cone. The cone-like mountain shape has faces A running all around it. These faces start at a low angle and then become steeper as they rise higher. Each of these has a vertical wall B alongside it, formed by the side of the next innermost face. These faces are not visible at the right hand side of the diagram as their downward slopes are hidden from view.  For clarity, in this diagram the cone is shown inverted, and so the direction of rotation appears clockwise, but in reality, when in its correct position, the rotation will be counter-clockwise. Notice in the upper diagram, that the incoming water D hits these faces at nearly a right-angle, providing substantial thrust in the direction of the arrows. As the lower diagram shows the top view of the inverted cone it has the appearance of a conical hill. At points E and F, lines are marked which indicate the height of the saw tooth shaped indentations in the surface of the cone. The lines at E represent the pressure-side, while at F the inner side indicates only the slope surface and thus no ‘suction-side’ exists. Now these indentations are not arranged to run straight down but are shifted as shown in the diagram at point G. Previous vertical indentations E now create the pressure-wall H, which corresponds to the previous indentation A in its spiral path. The inner-walls F of the earlier indentations thus create the surface M through their vertical walls B. In effect, the whole hill is built from these successive ‘winding staircases’, which admittedly actually don’t have any steps. These paths spiral upwards with progressively smaller radius and increasing steepness. At point N in the diagram, part of several of these spiral pathways is shown. Here, the vertical walls between them are visible only as small blue curves. The whole of the surface area of this turbine cone is a pressure-side because of these spiral surfaces running all around it. Like diagonally falling rain, water flows all around the surfaces of that hill in its downward flow, and anywhere it is forced to turn right it generates a rotational force on the turbine cone. Remember that this machine has a cone-shaped housing which ensures that the water flows exactly in its intended path. Crossing Flows To summarise, in Fig 07.05.10 the complete 360 degree surface of the cone is shown four times one below the other. Since the wide part of the cone has a radius of 24 cm it has a circumference of about 150 cm (R24 and U150), while the narrow part has a radius of 16 cm and hence a circumference of about 100 cm (R16 and U100). The length of the side-surface is about 24 cm (H24). Using this example with these dimensions, the upward flow is along the indentations in the cone and along the walls of the cone.  The angle of entry of the water at the narrow circumference was assumed to be 30 degrees. Maintaining this steady angle would cause the water flow to cover an angular sector of about 150 degrees, exiting at that same angle. Due to the centrifugal force of water striking the wall at an angle, an upward force is generated which causes the water to follow a steeper track and exit after crossing a sector which spans only 120 degrees or so (S120) and exit at an increased angle of about 35 degrees. That track D (drawn in blue) is shown several times in the top diagram. Water flowing in indentations will follow this track. However, this water can’t follow the faster moving wider circumference at the top of the cone. In order to achieve the ‘neutral-force’ track for the complete path across the cone, the indentations need to have an increased backward curvature of one third. This indentation track H is shown in red and is contained within a sector of 40 degrees (S40) and this path is also drawn several times in the top diagram. In order to have the turbine generate a mechanical turning force, the indentations need to be curved backwards more strongly. Here, for example, that sector was extended to cover 90 degrees (S90) so water is channelled outwards faster, and exits after covering only 70 degrees (S70). In the second diagram that indentation L (shown in red) and water track K (shown in blue) are drawn several times. The indentations of the turbine are shown here as saw tooth-like notches which are open on their outer side. This arrangement results in two separate flows: on the one hand, there is forced flow within the indentations and on the other hand there is the free flow of water on the wall of the cone. In the third diagram, these indentations L (shown in red) are drawn several times as are the tracks of the free-flowing water D (shown in blue). These two paths cross each other at an angle of about 90 degrees. Because free-flowing water projected upwards is too slow for the turbine-surface which is moving rather fast, but the water movement will be fast enough if it flows along the indentations L which are curved backwards as shown in the bottom diagram. In this diagram, both track D (shown in blue) taken by the free-flowing water and the indentation-forced track K (shown in red) are shown. Again, both flows are drawn several times and it can be seen clearly that these paths cross each other at an acute angle. The free-flowing water ‘brushes’ across the water which is flowing forwards in the indentations. It does this in the direction of rotation and this causes the water flowing in the indentations to start revolving. Water within the indentations becomes redirected backwards and transfers it’s inertia to the pressure-sides of the indentations, thus decelerating it’s forward motion. This water still has centrifugal force, but the further out it progresses, the faster the pressure-sides run away ahead of it. This water which is flowing ‘too slowly’ can only apply pressure to the walls if they were much more strongly curved backwards, and even in that case it would only be by a small angle which would impart practically no additional turning momentum. Also, free-flowing water can’t keep up with the faster movement of the turbine at its larger exit circumference. However, the outward water flow is easily fast enough to fill the grooves with water and produce additional rotation around its longitudinal axis. This revolving-water-cylinder effectively works like a gear wheel as it applies the pressure of the free flowing water on to the pressure-sides of the grooves. The water flowing along the cone-wall is not pressed into the grooves, and so it is not redirected and its forward motion is not decelerated. So the centrifugal forces of that free-flowing water can go on contributing to the turning momentum of the turbine, but only indirectly, by driving that water-cylinder within the grooves. Spin inside the Grooves Fig 07.05.11 shows sections of the area between the cone wall KW (shown in grey) and the turbine cone T. Free-flowing water moves alongside the cone wall, moving upwards and outwards. At the surface of the turbine, the turbine blades TS (light shading) are arranged in the shape of saw tooth-like notches. Water flowing within these grooves is guided outwards along the ever steepening track. Turning momentum is generated by the redirection of this part of the water flow.  On the pressure-sides of these grooves, there is also the additional pressure of the free flowing water B. This component of the water flows along a path which is not so steep and so it moves faster in the direction of rotation, i.e. it sweeps over the grooves. This generates a revolving movement C, in the water flowing inside the grooves. This increases the pressure on the pressure-sides of the grooves. So, this free-flowing component of the water flow, contributes indirectly to the turning momentum of the turbine. The diagram at the lower left hand side of the Figure is a sketch of the outlet at the top of the turbine. The inner wall of the cone is curved slightly inwards as shown. This guides the free-flowing component of the water flow into the grooves. It should also be noted that as this part of the water is redirected, it is also decelerated which contributes further to the turning momentum of the turbine. At the lower right hand side of the Figure, both the cross-sectional and longitudinal views of the outlet are shown. Here, the groove is no longer saw tooth-like but instead it has a constant width, and this causes the water to exit in a continuous jet. The groove here is rather wide and could well be divided by the introduction of additional blades ZS, which would allow the water pressure to be applied to a greater surface area. To summarise; with this arrangement, not all of the water flow is forced into the grooves and immediately redirected and decelerated. The free-flowing parts of the water are allowed to move in its natural direction and under the influence of the centrifugal forces they follow a steeper path as they flow outwards and upwards. Moving along this track causes the water to cross over the water flowing in the grooves. This in turn, causes the water in the grooves to rotate as it flows upwards and this additional revolving movement add to the torque being generated by the water flow. Finally, as it nears the outlet, the free-flowing component of the water is directed into the grooves and this redirection causes a deceleration which adds even further to the rotational drive of the turbine. One further beneficial effect which is easily overlooked, is the fact that the water in each groove forms a long stretch of rotating water. This length of rotating water rotates faster in the upper sections of the groove and a twisting vortex of this type generates a strong suction which pulls the water entering the turbine inlet, strongly upwards towards the outlet of the turbine. This has been des |